Compartmentation in Fire Safety: Beyond Regulatory Compliance to Resilience Engineering

Many thanks to our sponsor Focus 360 Energy who helped us prepare this research report.

Abstract

This research report explores the multifaceted role of fire compartmentation, extending beyond its conventional perception as a regulatory obligation to its potential as a cornerstone of resilience engineering in the built environment. While ‘Lack of Compartmentation’ is commonly cited as a significant fire safety deficiency, this report delves into the underlying principles, materials, and methods employed in creating effective fire compartments. It critically examines the limitations of prescriptive building codes, advocating for a performance-based approach that considers the dynamic and uncertain nature of real-world fire scenarios. Furthermore, the report investigates the critical intersections between compartmentation, structural integrity, and active fire suppression systems. It assesses common compartmentation failures, highlights the necessity of rigorous inspection and maintenance regimes, and proposes a shift towards adopting resilience engineering principles to enhance the overall fire safety strategy. The analysis includes a discussion of advancements in materials science and digital technologies (e.g., BIM, IoT) that could revolutionize compartmentation design and implementation. Finally, the report considers human behavior and organizational factors, arguing that effective compartmentation requires not just robust physical barriers but also a well-trained workforce and a proactive safety culture.

Many thanks to our sponsor Focus 360 Energy who helped us prepare this research report.

1. Introduction: The Evolving Paradigm of Fire Safety

Fire safety has historically been approached through a combination of prescriptive regulations and passive/active fire protection systems. Compartmentation, the practice of dividing a building into discrete fire-resistant zones, forms a crucial pillar of this strategy. The primary aim of compartmentation is to limit the spread of fire and smoke, providing occupants with time to escape and allowing firefighters to safely conduct rescue and suppression operations. Building codes worldwide mandate specific fire-resistance ratings for walls, floors, doors, and other elements that form fire compartments, based on occupancy type and building height [1].

However, the traditional prescriptive approach to compartmentation often falls short in addressing the complex and dynamic nature of real-world fires. Over-reliance on minimum code requirements can lead to a ‘tick-box’ mentality, neglecting the inherent uncertainties in fire ignition, spread, and intensity [2]. Moreover, the increasing complexity of modern building designs, coupled with the introduction of new materials and construction techniques, presents significant challenges to ensuring effective compartmentation. Large open-plan office spaces, complex HVAC systems, and the integration of combustible building materials can all compromise the integrity of fire compartments. Furthermore, the rise of performance-based design allows for greater flexibility in fire safety solutions, but also demands a more sophisticated understanding of fire dynamics and a more rigorous approach to risk assessment.

This report argues for a paradigm shift in fire safety, moving beyond regulatory compliance towards a resilience engineering approach. Resilience engineering focuses on designing systems that can anticipate, adapt to, and recover from unexpected events [3]. In the context of fire safety, this means not only meeting minimum code requirements but also proactively identifying potential vulnerabilities in compartmentation design, implementing robust inspection and maintenance programs, and fostering a safety culture that prioritizes fire prevention and preparedness. This approach recognizes that compartmentation is not a static barrier but rather a dynamic system that must be continuously monitored and adapted to changing conditions.

Many thanks to our sponsor Focus 360 Energy who helped us prepare this research report.

2. Principles of Fire Compartmentation: Confinement and Control

The fundamental principle of fire compartmentation rests on two key objectives: confinement and control. Confinement aims to restrict the fire to its origin, preventing it from spreading to other parts of the building. Control focuses on managing the fire’s impact within the compartment, limiting the rate of heat release, smoke production, and structural damage.

The effectiveness of compartmentation depends on the fire resistance of the compartment’s boundaries. Fire resistance is typically measured in terms of time (e.g., 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours) and indicates the duration for which a structural element can withstand a standardized fire exposure test without losing its structural integrity or allowing excessive heat transfer or flame penetration [4]. Fire-resistance ratings are determined through laboratory testing, such as those conducted in accordance with ASTM E119 (USA) or EN 1363 (Europe), which simulate realistic fire conditions. These tests evaluate the element’s ability to resist collapse, prevent flame passage (integrity), and limit temperature rise on the unexposed side (insulation).

However, these standardized fire tests are inherently limited in their ability to fully replicate the complexities of real-world fires. They typically involve a fully developed fire in a controlled environment, whereas real fires can exhibit a wide range of burning characteristics depending on the fuel load, ventilation conditions, and other factors [5]. Furthermore, the tests often focus on individual elements, neglecting the potential for failure at junctions and penetrations. Therefore, a holistic approach to compartmentation design is necessary, considering not only the fire resistance of individual elements but also the overall configuration of the compartment and the potential for fire spread through weaknesses in the construction.

Many thanks to our sponsor Focus 360 Energy who helped us prepare this research report.

3. Materials and Methods for Fire Compartment Construction

A wide range of materials and methods are employed in the construction of fire compartments, each with its own advantages and limitations. Common materials include:

• Concrete: Concrete is inherently fire-resistant due to its non-combustibility and high thermal mass. Reinforced concrete provides excellent structural integrity even under fire conditions.
• Masonry: Brick, block, and other masonry materials offer good fire resistance and durability. Like concrete, their high thermal mass helps to slow down the rate of temperature rise.
• Gypsum Board: Gypsum board (drywall) is a widely used and cost-effective material for fire-rated walls and ceilings. It contains chemically bound water that is released upon heating, providing a cooling effect that helps to slow down the rate of fire spread.
• Fire-Resistant Wood: Engineered wood products, such as fire-retardant treated (FRT) wood and cross-laminated timber (CLT), are gaining popularity in construction. FRT wood is treated with chemicals that slow down its rate of burning, while CLT offers inherent fire resistance due to its layered construction.
• Fire-Resistant Steel: Steel loses strength at high temperatures, but it can be protected with intumescent coatings or other fireproofing materials. Intumescent coatings expand when exposed to heat, forming an insulating char layer that protects the steel from the fire.

The selection of appropriate materials depends on several factors, including the required fire-resistance rating, the building’s occupancy type, and the aesthetic requirements of the design. It is crucial to ensure that the materials are properly installed and maintained to achieve their intended fire performance. This includes paying close attention to details such as joint sealing, penetration sealing, and the proper application of fireproofing materials.

Modern construction techniques are also playing a role in enhancing compartmentation. For example, the use of prefabricated modular construction can improve the quality and consistency of fire-resistant assemblies. Building Information Modeling (BIM) can be used to create detailed three-dimensional models of buildings, allowing designers to identify and address potential compartmentation weaknesses before construction begins. Digital tools combined with material science are advancing the field of compartmentation.

Many thanks to our sponsor Focus 360 Energy who helped us prepare this research report.

4. Building Codes and Regulations: A Critical Assessment

Building codes and regulations provide the framework for ensuring fire safety in buildings. These codes typically specify minimum requirements for fire-resistance ratings, compartment size, and the protection of openings in fire compartments. The most widely adopted model codes include the International Building Code (IBC) in the United States and the Eurocodes in Europe [6].

While building codes are essential for establishing a baseline level of fire safety, they are not without limitations. One common criticism is that they tend to be overly prescriptive, focusing on specific materials and construction methods rather than on the overall performance of the fire compartment. This can stifle innovation and prevent the use of alternative solutions that may be more effective in certain situations. Additionally, prescriptive codes often struggle to keep pace with advancements in building technology and the introduction of new materials.

A performance-based approach to fire safety offers a more flexible and adaptable alternative. Performance-based codes allow designers to demonstrate that a building meets specific fire safety objectives, such as limiting the spread of fire and smoke, providing adequate time for occupants to escape, and protecting the structural integrity of the building. This approach requires a more sophisticated understanding of fire dynamics and a more rigorous approach to risk assessment, but it can also lead to more cost-effective and innovative fire safety solutions. However, performance-based design requires increased sophistication of the design team and third-party review to ensure equivalent levels of safety.

Ultimately, an effective fire safety strategy involves a combination of prescriptive and performance-based elements. Prescriptive codes provide a baseline level of safety, while performance-based approaches allow for greater flexibility and innovation. It is crucial to ensure that building codes are regularly updated to reflect advancements in fire science and technology and that they are properly enforced to ensure compliance.

Many thanks to our sponsor Focus 360 Energy who helped us prepare this research report.

5. Common Compartmentation Failures: Weak Links in the Chain

Despite the best intentions, compartmentation failures are a common occurrence in buildings. These failures can compromise the effectiveness of the entire fire safety strategy, leading to rapid fire spread, increased property damage, and potential loss of life. Common causes of compartmentation failure include:

• Penetrations: Openings for pipes, ducts, cables, and other services can create pathways for fire and smoke to spread through fire compartments. Improperly sealed penetrations are a leading cause of compartmentation failure.
• Doors: Fire doors are designed to automatically close and seal off fire compartments, but they can be rendered ineffective if they are blocked open, damaged, or improperly maintained. Hold-open devices are a common problem.
• Joints and Gaps: Gaps between walls, floors, and ceilings can allow fire and smoke to bypass the fire compartment. These gaps can be caused by poor construction practices, settlement of the building, or the expansion and contraction of building materials.
• Damaged or Missing Fireproofing: Fireproofing materials, such as intumescent coatings, can be damaged or removed during construction or maintenance activities. This can significantly reduce the fire resistance of structural elements.
• Inadequate Design: Poorly designed fire compartments can create pathways for fire and smoke to spread. This can occur when compartments are too large, when there are insufficient fire separations, or when the building’s layout makes it difficult to contain a fire.
• Human Error: Improper construction, maintenance, or operation of fire compartments can lead to failures. This can include using the wrong materials, failing to seal penetrations properly, or leaving fire doors open.

Addressing these common compartmentation failures requires a multi-faceted approach. This includes rigorous inspection and maintenance programs, proper training of construction workers and building occupants, and a strong emphasis on quality control during construction. The utilization of digital tools like BIM can also aid in identifying and mitigating potential compartmentation weaknesses.

Many thanks to our sponsor Focus 360 Energy who helped us prepare this research report.

6. Inspection and Maintenance: Ensuring Long-Term Effectiveness

Effective fire compartmentation is not a one-time achievement; it requires ongoing inspection and maintenance to ensure its long-term effectiveness. Regular inspections should be conducted to identify and address any potential weaknesses in the fire compartments. These inspections should include a thorough examination of all fire-rated walls, floors, doors, and penetrations.

Key elements to be inspected include:

• Fire Doors: Ensure that fire doors are properly installed, closing fully and latching securely. Check for any damage to the door, frame, or hardware. Verify that hold-open devices are functioning correctly and are not being used to prop the door open.
• Penetrations: Ensure that all penetrations are properly sealed with fire-resistant materials. Check for any gaps or cracks in the sealant.
• Joints and Gaps: Inspect joints and gaps between walls, floors, and ceilings. Ensure that they are properly sealed with fire-resistant materials.
• Fireproofing: Check for any damage to fireproofing materials, such as intumescent coatings. Ensure that the fireproofing is properly applied and is not peeling or cracking.
• Signage: Ensure that all fire doors and fire compartments are clearly marked with appropriate signage.

Maintenance activities should be conducted promptly to address any deficiencies identified during inspections. This may include repairing damaged fire doors, sealing penetrations, and reapplying fireproofing materials. A comprehensive maintenance program should also include regular testing of fire protection systems, such as fire alarms and sprinkler systems, to ensure that they are functioning properly. This can be managed utilizing cloud based solutions and smart technology.

Furthermore, it is essential to maintain accurate records of all inspections and maintenance activities. These records can be used to track the performance of fire compartments over time and to identify any recurring problems. The inspection and maintenance of fire compartments should be performed by qualified personnel who have the necessary knowledge and experience to identify and address potential problems.

Many thanks to our sponsor Focus 360 Energy who helped us prepare this research report.

7. Resilience Engineering and the Future of Compartmentation

Moving beyond prescriptive compliance, resilience engineering offers a promising approach to enhancing fire safety and compartmentation effectiveness. Resilience engineering focuses on designing systems that can anticipate, adapt to, and recover from unexpected events. In the context of fire safety, this means not only meeting minimum code requirements but also proactively identifying potential vulnerabilities in compartmentation design, implementing robust inspection and maintenance programs, and fostering a safety culture that prioritizes fire prevention and preparedness [7].

Several key principles of resilience engineering can be applied to fire compartmentation:

• Anticipation: Identifying potential hazards and vulnerabilities before they occur. This includes conducting thorough risk assessments, analyzing past fire incidents, and utilizing advanced modeling techniques to simulate fire scenarios.
• Monitoring: Continuously monitoring the performance of fire compartments and identifying any signs of degradation or failure. This can be achieved through regular inspections, sensor networks, and data analytics.
• Response: Having the ability to respond quickly and effectively to fire events. This includes having well-trained personnel, readily available fire suppression equipment, and clear communication protocols.
• Learning: Learning from past experiences and continuously improving the fire safety strategy. This includes conducting post-incident investigations, sharing lessons learned, and updating building codes and regulations.

By adopting a resilience engineering approach, we can create fire compartments that are more robust, adaptable, and resilient to unexpected events. This will ultimately lead to safer buildings and a more secure built environment.

Emerging technologies are also playing a role in advancing resilience engineering in fire safety. IoT (Internet of Things) sensors can be integrated into fire compartments to monitor temperature, smoke, and other environmental parameters. This data can be used to detect fires early, track their spread, and activate fire suppression systems automatically. Furthermore, artificial intelligence (AI) can be used to analyze this data and identify patterns that may indicate potential compartmentation failures. Digital twins are also creating a realistic model of a building which can be analyzed and tested for a variety of scenarios. These tools enhance the response and anticipation capabilities of compartmentation engineering.

Many thanks to our sponsor Focus 360 Energy who helped us prepare this research report.

8. Conclusion: Embracing a Holistic Fire Safety Philosophy

Effective fire compartmentation is a critical element of fire safety, but it is not a panacea. It must be integrated into a holistic fire safety strategy that includes active fire suppression systems, smoke control systems, and well-trained personnel. Over-reliance on passive fire protection measures, such as compartmentation, can create a false sense of security and neglect the importance of active fire protection and human factors [8].

This report has highlighted the limitations of traditional prescriptive approaches to compartmentation and has advocated for a shift towards a resilience engineering approach. By proactively identifying potential vulnerabilities, implementing robust inspection and maintenance programs, and fostering a safety culture that prioritizes fire prevention and preparedness, we can create fire compartments that are more robust, adaptable, and resilient to unexpected events. The field of compartmentation is advancing quickly with better materials and digital technologies, this innovation can continue to save lives.

The future of fire safety lies in embracing a holistic philosophy that integrates all aspects of fire protection, from initial design to ongoing maintenance. This requires a collaborative effort involving architects, engineers, contractors, building owners, and fire safety professionals. Only through such a collaborative effort can we create a built environment that is truly safe from the devastating effects of fire.

Many thanks to our sponsor Focus 360 Energy who helped us prepare this research report.

References

[1] International Code Council. (2021). International Building Code. Country Club Hills, IL: ICC.

[2] Drysdale, D. (2011). An Introduction to Fire Dynamics. John Wiley & Sons.

[3] Hollnagel, E., Woods, D. D., & Leveson, N. (2006). Resilience engineering: Concepts and precepts. Ashgate Publishing.

[4] Buchanan, A. H. (2017). Structural Design for Fire Safety. John Wiley & Sons.

[5] Karlsson, B., & Quintiere, J. G. (2000). Enclosure Fire Dynamics. CRC Press.

[6] European Committee for Standardization. (2002). Eurocodes. CEN.

[7] Bruneau, M., Chang, S. E., Eguchi, R. T., Lee, G. C., O’Rourke, T. D., Reinhorn, A. M., … & Von Winterfeldt, D. (2003). Seismic resilience: Concepts and implications for research and policy. Earthquake Spectra, 19(4), 733-759.

[8] Watts, J. M. (2003). Engineering for fire safety. CRC press.